Single Entry and Double Entry Accounting

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Single entry accounting/Cash accounting. This system records only cash movement of transactions and that too up to the extent of recording one aspect of the transactions. This means that only receipt or payment of cash is recorded and no separate record is maintained (about the source of receipt and payment) as to from whom the cash was received or to whom it was paid. Double entry book keeping/Commercial accounting. Double entry or commercial accounting system records both aspects of transaction i.e. receipt or payment and source of receipt or payment. It also records credit transactions i.e. recording of Electricity Bill or accruals of Salary payment etc. This concept will be explained in detail in the next lectures but for the time being it should be noted that in cash accounting date of receipt / payment of actual cash is important while in commercial accounting the date on which the expense is caused (whether paid or not) as well as the spreading of the cost of c
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RATIONAL DECISION MAKING

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Managers as Decision Makers:

Although we know about the decision-making process, we still don’t know much about the manager as a decision maker. In this session, we’ll look at how decisions are made, the types of problems and decisions managers face, the conditions under which managers make decisions, and decision-making styles.

The nature of managerial decision making:

Decision making is the process through which managers identify organizational problems and attempt to resolve them. Decision makers face three types of problems.
1.  A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring immediate action.
2.  A non-crisis problem is an issue that requires resolution, but does not simultaneously have the importance and immediacy characteristics of crises.
3.  An opportunity problem is a situation that offers a strong potential for significant organizational gain if appropriate actions are taken.
a.  Opportunities involve ideas that could be sued, rather than difficulties that must be resolved.
b.  Non-innovative managers tend to focus on problems rather than upon opportunities.

Models of Decision Making:

Rational Model:
According to the rational model of decision making, managers engage in completely rational decision processes, ultimately make optimal decisions, and possess and understand all information relevant to their decisions at the time they make them (including all possible alternatives and all potential outcomes and ramifications).
Rational Model Step by Step:
Defining Problem by gathering relevant information:

Step 1 is identifying a problem. A problem is defined as a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs. Some cautions about problem identification include the following:
1.  Make sure it’s a problem and not just a symptom of a problem.
2.  Problem identification is subjective.
3.  Before a problem can be determined, a manager must be aware of any discrepancies.
4.  Discrepancies can be found by comparing current results with some standard.
5.  Pressure must be exerted on the manager to correct the discrepancy.
6.  Managers aren’t likely to characterize some discrepancy as a problem if they perceive that they don’t have the authority, money, information, or other resources needed to act on it.

Step 2 is identifying the decision criteria. Decision criteriaare criteria that define what is relevant and important in making a decision.
Step 3 is allocating weights to the criteria. The criteria identified in Step 2 of the decision-making process aren’t all equally important, so the decision maker must weight the items in order to give them correct priority in the decision.
Step 4 involves developing alternatives. The decision maker now needs to identify viable alternatives for resolving the problem.
Step 5 is analyzing alternatives. Each of the alternatives must now be critically analyzed. Each alternative
is evaluated by appraising it against the criteria.

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